The kernel exports many details about detected hardware through the and /sys/ virtual filesystems. Several tools summarize those details. Among them, lspci (in the pciutils package) lists PCI devices, lsusb (in the usbutils package) lists USB devices, and lspcmcia (in the pcmciautils package) lists PCMCIA cards. These tools are very useful for identifying the exact model of a device. This identification also allows more precise searches on the web, which in turn, lead to more relevant documents.

例 B.1. Example of information provided by lspci and lsusb

These programs have a -v option, that lists much more detailed (but usually not necessary) information. Finally, the lsdev command (in the procinfo package) lists communication resources used by devices.

Applications often access devices by way of special files created within /dev/ (see sidebar ). These are special files that represent disk drives (for instance, /dev/hda and /dev/sdc), partitions ( or /dev/sdc3), mice (/dev/input/mouse0), keyboards (/dev/input/event0), soundcards (/dev/snd/*), serial ports (/dev/ttyS*), and so on.

The starting point of this hierarchical tree is called the root, /. This directory can contain named subdirectories. For instance, the home subdirectory of / is called /home/. This subdirectory can, in turn, contain other subdirectories, and so on. Each directory can also contain files, where the actual data will be stored. Thus, the /home/rmas/Desktop/hello.txt name refers to a file named hello.txt stored in the subdirectory of the rmas subdirectory of the home directory present in the root. The kernel translates between this naming system and the actual, physical storage on a disk.

Unlike other systems, there is only one such hierarchy, and it can integrate data from several disks. One of these disks is used as the root, and the others are “mounted” on directories in the hierarchy (the Unix command is called mount); these other disks are then available under these “mount points”. This allows storing users’ home directories (traditionally stored within /home/) on a second hard disk, which will contain the rhertzog and rmas directories. Once the disk is mounted on /home/, these directories become accessible at their usual locations, and paths such as /home/rmas/Desktop/hello.txt keep working.

There are many filesystem formats, corresponding to many ways of physically storing data on disks. The most widely known are ext2, ext3 and ext4, but others exist. For instance, vfat is the system that was historically used by DOS and Windows operating systems, which allows using hard disks under Debian as well as under Windows. In any case, a filesystem must be prepared on a disk before it can be mounted and this operation is known as “formatting”. Commands such as mkfs.ext3 (where mkfs stands for MaKe FileSystem) handle formatting. These commands require, as a parameter, a device file representing the partition to be formatted (for instance, /dev/sda1). This operation is destructive and should only be run once, except if one deliberately wishes to wipe a filesystem and start afresh.

There are also network filesystems, such as NFS, where data is not stored on a local disk. Instead, data is transmitted through the network to a server that stores and retrieves them on demand. The filesystem abstraction shields users from having to care: files remain accessible in their usual hierarchical way.

A process is a running instance of a program. This requires memory to store both the program itself and its operating data. The kernel is in charge of creating and tracking them. When a program runs, the kernel first sets aside some memory, then loads the executable code from the filesystem into it, and then starts the code running. It keeps information about this process, the most visible of which is an identification number known as pid (process identifier).

Unix-like kernels (including Linux), like most other modern operating systems, are capable of “multi-tasking”. In other words, they allow running many processes “at the same time”. There is actually only one running process at any one time, but the kernel cuts time into small slices and runs each process in turn. Since these time slices are very short (in the millisecond range), they create the illusion of processes running in parallel, although they are actually only active during some time intervals and idle the rest of the time. The kernel’s job is to adjust its scheduling mechanisms to keep that illusion, while maximizing the global system performance. If the time slices are too long, the application may not appear as responsive as desired. Too short, and the system loses time switching tasks too frequently. These decisions can be tweaked with process priorities. High-priority processes will run for longer and with more frequent time slices than low-priority processes.

NOTE Multi-processor systems (and variants)

The limitation described above of only one process being able to run at a time, doesn’t always apply. The actual restriction is that there can only be one running process per processor core at a time. Multi-processor, multi-core or “hyper-threaded” systems allow several processes to run in parallel. The same time-slicing system is still used, though, so as to handle cases where there are more active processes than available processor cores. This is far from unusual: a basic system, even a mostly idle one, almost always has tens of running processes.

Unix-like systems are also multi-user. They provide a rights management system that supports separate users and groups; it also allows control over actions based on permissions. The kernel manages data for each process, allowing it to control permissions. Most of the time, a process is identified by the user who started it. That process is only permitted to take those actions available to its owner. For instance, trying to open a file requires the kernel to check the process identity against access permissions (for more details on this particular example, see 第 9.3 节 “管理权限”).