One group of sequence functions allows you to express certain operations on sequences such as finding or filtering specific elements without writing explicit loops. Table 11-1 summarizes them.

Table 11-1.Basic Sequence Functions

Here are some simple examples of how to use these functions:

You can modify the behavior of these five functions in a variety of ways using keyword arguments. For instance, these functions, by default, look for elements in the sequence that are the same object as the item argument. You can change this in two ways: First, you can use the :test keyword to pass a function that accepts two arguments and returns a boolean. If provided, it will be used to compare item to each element instead of the default object equality test, **EQL**.5 Second, with the :key keyword you can pass a one-argument function to be called on each element of the sequence to extract a key value, which will then be compared to the item in the place of the element itself. Note, however, that functions such as **FIND** that return elements of the sequence continue to return the actual element, not just the extracted key.

To limit the effects of these functions to a particular subsequence of the sequence argument, you can provide bounding indices with and :end arguments. Passing **NIL** for :end or omitting it is the same as specifying the length of the sequence.6

If a non-**NIL** :from-end argument is provided, then the elements of the sequence will be examined in reverse order. By itself :from-end can affect the results of only **FIND** and **POSITION**. For instance:

And while :from-end can’t change the results of the **COUNT** function, it does affect the order the elements are passed to any :test and functions, which could possibly have side effects. For example:

Table 11-2 summarizes these arguments.

Table 11-2. Standard Sequence Function Keyword Arguments